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__Question: __

 Contrast and compare the role and purpose of secular drama and theatre as an expression of the communities from which it arose and for which it has served with that of religious and ritual drama and theatre. Use examples from __Joe Turner__ and the way the play makes use of both secular and religious/ritual aspects to shape its content and manner of expression.

__Answer: __

 Theater is an ancient art form that has allowed people to express and interpret the human experience throughout time. The history of theater has danced between being secular and religious and ultimately has culminated in the two being united in modern theater.  Theater has its earliest roots in religious ritualistic plays. This is seen in North America through the Hopi Indians who held ceremonies in which the males of the tribe take on the persona of a kachina, a spiritual guardian of sorts, and transcend their worldly self and become the kachina spirit. The kachina cycle began during the December solstice to enter the new year; the cycle concludes with a ceremony in July that is celebrated in hopes of a bountiful harvest. There are other rituals that mark important occasions between the opening and closing ceremonies of the Hopi tribe such as initiation into the community, teaching discipline, and planting seeds. All these ceremonies mark seminal spiritual and social moments in the lives of the Hopi, they teach important values, such as the importance of community and agriculture signified by the cycle of the ceremonies following the harvest cycle. The social fabric of the Hopi community centers around the agricultural seasons as evidenced by religious rituals and community values being inextricably linked to the harvest. Stephanie Arnold articulates this idea in //The Creative Spirit: An Introduction to Theater// by stating, “The relationship between agriculture, the natural environment, and the social order of the community is shaped by the proper regard for a spiritual experience.” (pg. 10)

 Ancient Greek theater shares similar underpinnings with the Hopi tribe. These ritualistic ceremonies both deal with renewal, transformation, and agriculture. Both view actors as becoming one with the spiritual entity they represent in the ceremony and according to according to the //Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World//, man could commune with Dionysus through intoxication and theater, “in which the human form leaves and is replaced by the identity of the god”, also known as //ekstasis// in Greek. The worship of the god Dionysus was at the center of Greek theater., Dionysus as a god defined by ability to bridge the gap between man and the gods. Though wine and theater, Dionysus was thought to allow for the Ancient Greeks to merge with gods during celebration. The belief that Dionysus could possess his worshippers led to men imitating the god’s character, first through dithyrambs, which were hymns sung at festivals in honor of Dionysus, leading to the art of the tragedy and later the comedy. The tragedy and comedy could be a metaphor for Dionysus’s polarity; tragedy representing his darker, more violent side, while comedy the merriment, ecstasy and raucous behavior usually associated with the Dionysian celebration. Theater is also closely associated with Dionysus through the use of masks and illusion, which are traits closely associated with Dionysus. He often makes use of the “human mask” to hide in plain sight among his attendants as well as enemies. Dionysus is a shape shifter, taking on whatever form will bring his followers and adversaries closer to him, blurring the line between the divine and man. This attribute can be seen in theater when actors adorn masks in order to assume a new identity, to celebrate Dionysus by assuming an alternate identity, one of the god himself. Dionysus is also closely linked to the City Dionysia because he symbolized vegetation, fertility and nature, which were important themes in the spring when the earth was in renewal from winter. Beyond agriculture and renewal, the Ancient Greek plays also commented on the social structure of Athens, they referenced civic duty and importance of community leading to democracy, the relationship between man and the gods, social order, and family. Like the Hopi, the Ancient Greeks used ceremonies and rituals to create a sense of community that was centered on shared beliefs and agriculture, which provided the basis for life.

 During the Middle Ages, many people in Europe were illiterate. In response to this the Catholic Church created the mystery cycles, which depicted biblical events to bring Catholicism to the masses. Like the Hopi kachina cycle and the City Dionysia of Ancient Greece, the entire community participated and halted normal life for the duration of the festival. The mystery cycles were funded through specific guilds for certain aspects of the play (i.e. the bakers for //The Last Supper//). The church and state benefited from these traveling plays because they brought their underlying message of class hierarchies and limited social mobility through producing plays that depicted accepting one’s lot in life to the masses. Even the sets, including stained glass, were symmetrical and hierarchical furthering their message of a structured, static social order along with Catholic values (angles at the top, then man, then hell).

 In general the ancient religious plays were characterized by being massive productions that only occurred at certain times (usually along with agricultural seasons) and were brought to fruition by the work of all members of the community. The actors were on the whole nonprofessional, and were not paid. Secular theater focused less on the grand theme of religion and community and more on the actor’s abilities. Plays were no longer governed by a set seasonal schedule and had more creative freedom to explore topics more focused on the realm of man rather than religion. The secular theater of Shakespeare and the Beijing Opera brought along a salary for the actors, but this also entailed actors utilizing a greater skill set of not only portraying their characters, but also their surroundings as the sets ranged from minimal to bare. Elizabethan theater was characterized by actors who worked throughout the year and were often supported by noble and aristocratic patronage. The Renaissance paved the way for the creativity of Shakespeare and the relative security during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I allowed theater to flourish. The plays were often centralized around politics and interior struggles of the main characters. The stage was mainly bare; instead the theater was filled with the scenery of language.

 The Beijing Opera of China was very similar to Elizabethan theater in that it had minimal sets, employed professional actors, and was secularly based. The biggest difference between Elizabethan theater and Chinese theater was Elizabethan theater focused more on language to move the play along, while Chinese plays often rely on ornate costumes and gestures.

 Both secular and religious features can be found in __Joe Turner__. Many of the social issues in __Joe Turner__ are secular. Slavery is a problem born of politics. It is a guiding theme in this play, which portrays the way slavery ravages identity, hope, and wholeness. It also depicted the way slavery divide the nation and the people. Seth, the proprietor of the boarding house was the son of a free man who left him the house and the metalwork skills. He is often seen to be unconcerned and at times angry with the behavior he believes to be associated with former southern salves, mainly his tenants. He believes they are uncouth, rowdy, and ignorant. There is also the running issue of wealth and money. The play portrays America at the time as being a system that institutionalized the disparity between blacks and whites. This can be seen when Seth is denied over and over again a chance to create a metalwork company and when Jeremy is fired from his job because he will not pay to keep it just because he is black. Loomis represents the internal struggle that often characterized the secular Elizabethan plays of the past. He is haunted by being forced into a chain gang by Joe Turner. He is inwardly immobilized by his lack of identity and anger.

 Most of the religious aspects of the play are incited by Bynum, a rootworker, who has immense spiritual capabilities. He is seen every morning sacrificing pigeons, bleeding them, and dancing about in a circle. He is also a believer in the mystics. He often offers folksy advice to the woes of his fellow tenants, and much to the disbelief and chagrin of Seth, who in many ways is Bynum’s complete opposite, these remedies often produce results. The Juba is also a significant religious event for African slaves. The stage directions state that the Juba “…should include some mention of the Holy Ghost”. Bynum and Loomis both see visions that are very spiritual in nature. Bynum’s vision included a “shiny man”, who has been restored to his glory, while Loomis’s vision was of a metaphor that skeletons rise from the water as black men, signifying the slave trade between Africa and America. These visions, and in Bynum’s case, prophecy, help to guide these characters’ journeys on the road to becoming a complete person again. The act of Loomis near the conclusion of the play of cutting his chest with a knife, was symbolic of a baptism, in which he is reborn and finally turns into a “shiny man”. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The weaving together of spirituality and secularism in __Joe Turner__ allows for a rich story telling in which real life problems and themes based in politics, money, cultural norms, and history are viewed and solved through a lens of mysticism, spirituality, and religion, allowing for a full picture of the African American experience in the early twentieth century.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sources: __

<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Arnold, Stephanie. //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The Creative Spirit: An Introduction to Theatre //. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sacks, David; Oswyn Murray, Lisa R. Brody. //The Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World//. New York: Facts On File Inc, 2005. Print.