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 * Question:**

Contrast and compare the role and purpose of secular drama and theatre as an expression of the communities from which it arose and for which it has served with that of religious and ritual drama and theatre. Use examples from __ Joe Turner __ and the way the play makes use of both secular and religious/ritual aspects to shape it's content an manner of expression.


 * Answer:**

The theatre is a magical work of art that has been captivating its audiences for centuries. Throughout certain time periods, the overall goal of the theatre has somewhat remained the same: to both entertain and enlighten the people. However, the impetus behind the productions, the purposes for performing certain plays, has greatly changed over the years. Over the course of its existence, the theatre has served its communities as both a secular form of drama as well as a religious and ritualistic type of drama.

In her text entitled //The Creative Spirit: An Introduction to Theatre//, author Stephanie Arnold bestows her readers with an array of information regarding the theatre and its history. One of the first types of theatre that she discusses is the Greek theatre, which began in the fifth century B.C.E. (Arnold 12). The Greek theatre, in my opinion, is somewhat of a paradox. Initially, this particular theatre evolved out of the Greeks’ worship of Dionysus, in which they held a festival, called the City of Dionysia, in his honor (Arnold 14). The festivals were certainly a treat to all of the Greeks, for it only lasted one week, but it gave them the opportunity to see a number of theatre performances. These “dramas were added to the various activities…setting the stage for the brilliant Athenian drama” (Arnold 13). In this sense, the Greek theatre seems to have a religious aspect about it, for it was born from the notion of worshipping a god. However, the Greeks became very inquisitive about life, and questions began to arise about their relationships between the earth and the gods. Thus, the Greek theatre did have a secular aspect to it as the Greeks’ “ethical and political questions…helped shape the emergence of democracy in Athens” (Arnold 14).

Another type of archaic theatre was the Roman theatre. The Roman theatre served an important religious purpose: to entertain the gods. The structure of the theatre accentuated this purpose because by design, there was a special balcony level on which the Romans placed their gods, overlooking the stage. Therefore, the actors performed to the best of their ability regardless of whether there was an audience, for they were always performing for the gods. This trend is also found in modern-day Asian theatres, especially in India, where the actors sometimes perform for an audience comprised of just their gods.

When speaking about theatre from a religious standpoint, one cannot ignore the role that rituals play in “...reinforce[ing] community values and act[ing] out community stories that preserve a way of life” (Arnold 6). Author Stephanie Arnold points out that there are two distinct types of rituals: religious and secular (6). However, most rituals that are used in the theatre tend to be based on more religious ideals. A classic example of a group that performs these religious rituals are the Hopi Indians, who act out the stories of the kachinas, “whom they view as their spiritual guardians” (Arnold 8-9). Clad in bright, flamboyant costumes and masks, which are symbolic for this type of ritual, the Hopi men perform this drama, hoping that it will bring “Rain, fertility, and...social order…” to their tribe (Arnold 9). The author points out that this particular ritual is essential to the Hopi’s way of life, for “The kachina performances are at the center of the community physically as well as spiritually and socially” (9).

Of course, the theatre has not always been alive and well. During a period known as the Dark Ages, this art disappeared into the country where it took the form of juggling and other sorts of rustic antics. When the theatre was finally recreated in the Medieval Times, or the Middle Ages, it was restored through the Catholic Church; “Medieval society was organized largely around the Catholic Church, and it was as part of religious observation that the theatre developed in medieval Europe” (Arnold 19). Characteristic to this time period were productions called mystery cycles, which focused largely on the stories of Biblical events. Whole communities would line the road in order to catch a glimpse of a pageant wagon, which is a mobile vehicle on which “The individual playlets of the English cycles were staged...” (Arnold 20). Although the people greatly enjoyed the theatre during this time period, the Church’s manipulation of the content of the plays “...reinforced people’s faith by allowing community members to identify with Christ’s suffering and triumph and to act on their own devotion through the production of the plays” (Arnold 22). Essentially, during the Medieval Times, the theatre became an important part of the Catholic Church because it provided the people with entertainment that served as a type of sermon, allowing the Church to deliver the Message outside of the walls of the church itself.

After the Middle Ages, there was a dramatic shift in the role that the theatre played in the communities. The great William Shakespeare formed a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and between 1590 and 1610, he transformed the theatre from one of worship and religion, to one that focused on money and other secular ideas. This marked the era of commercial theatre. Acting was no longer an amateur profession; the actors, as well as the other crew members in charge of creating a play, were professionals who were paid for their services: “Unlike the Greek and medieval theatres… [this] theatre involved professional practitioners engaged full-time in the production of plays” (Arnold 25). During this time, there was also the development of a single place specifically designed for secular theatre performances. For example, Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre housed many famous plays and attracted large crowds each night. The Church lost its influence in the theatre, and it no longer funded the costs of productions; rather, the guilds in London provided the money. Plays now focused on man and man’s place in the universe, rather than a particular religious event. This type of secular theatre was also popular in the country of China, where they performed the Beijing Opera. In these plays, the focus was strictly on the actor, who wore rich, ornate dresses and heavily decorated masks. The Beijing Opera had two areas on which it focused: “civil plays that dealt with domestic and social situations and military plays that maximized the opportunity for the action of warriors, outlaws, and demons” (Arnold 33). There was no mention of religion in this Chinese theatre. Indeed, as time has changed, so has the role that the theatre plays in the community. Stephanie Arnold best summarizes the dichotomy between the religious and secular theatres in the following quote from her text: “Unlike the Greek and medieval theatres, which were basically religious and depended on community participation, Elizabethan theatre and the Beijing Opera were secular and professional” (44).

August Wilson’s play //Joe Turner’s Come and Gone// is a great example of a piece that combines both secular and religious aspects to create a complex atmosphere that contributes to the play’s overall meaning. The setting is Seth Holly's boardinghouse, specifically his wife Bertha's kitchen. The smokestacks from the factories of Pittsburgh are visible from the kitchen window. Bertha’s kitchen represents warmth and comfort, but the city of Pittsburgh itself, with its booming steel industry, represents the desire to earn money, which is the quintessential secular symbol. The quest to make money is a prevalent idea throughout the play. Seth seems more concerned about the rent that his tenants are paying him, rather than the troubles they might be facing in their lives. Seth was born in the North to free black parents. He inherited his house and has not had to endure the long-term negative effects that slavery in the South had on a man: “These nxxxxxs coming up here with that old backward country style of living…. Ever since slavery got over with there ain’t been nothing but foolish-acting nxxxxxs” (Wilson 61). His lack of experiencing racism in the South makes him appear indifferent to his tenants’ problems. In fact, the overall theme of racism has a secular meaning behind it. While some might believe that slavery was initially justified by religious reasoning, it is, indeed, a political issue that divided not only two races, but also two distinct parts of the country.

Despite the secular aspects of the play, there are also many religious ideas that Wilson expresses in his piece. The central religious character is Bynum, a “rootworker” that participates in what Seth calls “mumbo jumbo nonsense” (Wilson 60). Every morning, Bynum performs a ritual in which he kills a pigeon, buries it, and pours its blood on top of its grave (Wilson 60-61). In addition to that, Bynum also claims to be a “Binder of What Clings,” using his magic to bring people together, such as he does in the ending of the play with Martha Loomis and her daughter Zonia (Wilson 64). He is also the instigator of the Juba, a cultural dance that “is reminiscent of the Ring Shouts of the African slaves” in which the words used “…should include some mention of the Holy Ghost” (Wilson 79-80). The protagonist of the play, Herald Loomis, also invokes a religious image when he cuts himself with a knife and rubs the blood on his face, symbolizing a sort of baptism and re-birth. Herald becomes “fully resurrected, cleansed and given breath,” and he is finally free from the chains of slavery (Wilson 95). Loomis ultimately obtains what each character in the play is searching for; he attains a sense of identity and the opportunity to go forth and live a life of meaning and purpose.


 * Citations:**

Arnold, Stephanie. //The Creative Spirit: An Introduction to Theatre//. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.

Wilson, August. “//Joe Turner’s Come and Gone//.” //The Creative Spirit: An Introduction to Theatre//. Stephanie Arnold. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. 59-95. Print.